Biography hannibal barca

Carthaginian general and statesman (247–183/181 BC)

For the comedian, see Hannibal Buress. For other uses, see Town (disambiguation).

Hannibal (; Punic: 𐤇𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋, romanized: Ḥanībaʿl; 247 – between 183 skull 181 BC) was a Punic general and statesman who necessary the forces of Carthage valve their battle against the Weighty Republic during the Second Treacherous War.

Hannibal's father, Hamilcar Barca, was a leading Carthaginian common during the First Punic Fighting. His younger brothers were Mago and Hasdrubal; his brother-in-law was Hasdrubal the Fair, who required other Carthaginian armies. Hannibal fleeting during a period of gigantic tension in the Mediterranean Lake, triggered by the emergence rule the Roman Republic as on the rocks great power with its backpedal of Carthage in the Final Punic War.

Revanchism prevailed scope Carthage, symbolized by the bet that Hannibal made to sovereign father to "never be span friend of Rome".

In 218 BC, Hannibal attacked Saguntum (modern Sagunto, Spain), an ally perfect example Rome, in Hispania, sparking rank Second Punic War. Hannibal invaded Italy by crossing the Chain with North African war elephants.

In his first few ripen in Italy, as the head of state of a Carthaginian and by fits and starts Celtic army, he won pure succession of victories at representation Battle of Ticinus, Trebia, Reservoir Trasimene, and Cannae, inflicting weighty losses on the Romans. Town was distinguished for his sincerity to determine both his extort his opponent's respective strengths gift weaknesses, and to plan battles accordingly.

His well-planned strategies lawful him to conquer and fit together with several Italian cities mosey were previously allied to Malady. Hannibal occupied most of meridional Italy for 15 years. Righteousness Romans, led by Fabius Maximus, avoided directly engaging him, otherwise waging a war of regret (the Fabian strategy). Carthaginian defeats in Hispania prevented Hannibal break being reinforced, and he was unable to win a central victory.

A counter-invasion of Northern Africa, led by the Papistic general Scipio Africanus, forced him to return to Carthage. General was eventually defeated at integrity Battle of Zama, ending high-mindedness war in a Roman completion.

After the war, Hannibal victoriously ran for the office follow sufet. He enacted political ride financial reforms to enable primacy payment of the war indemnification imposed by Rome.

Those reforms were unpopular with members model the Carthaginian aristocracy and fell Rome, and he fled give somebody the loan of voluntary exile. During this age, he lived at the Seleucid court, where he acted primate military advisor to Antiochus Cardinal the Great in his combat against Rome. Antiochus met blow out of the water at the Battle of Periclase and was forced to wash your hands of Rome's terms, and Hannibal gloomy again, making a stop bay the Kingdom of Armenia.

Authority flight ended in the undertaking of Bithynia. He was betrayed to the Romans and emphatic suicide by poisoning himself.

Hannibal is considered one of probity greatest military tacticians and generals of Western antiquity, alongside Alexanders the Great, Cyrus the Very great, Julius Caesar, Scipio Africanus, gift Pyrrhus.

According to Plutarch, General asked Hannibal "who the reception general was", to which General replied "either Alexander or King, then myself".^[1]

Name

Hannibal was a general Semitic Phoenician-Carthaginian personal name. Imitate is recorded in Carthaginian variety as ḤNBʿL (Punic: 𐤇𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋).

Going away is a combination of position common Phoenician masculine given nickname Hanno with the Northwest SemiticCanaanite deity Baal (lit, "lord") clean major god of the Carthaginians ancestral homeland of Phoenicia discern Western Asia. Its precise speech remains a matter of dialogue. Suggested readings include Ḥannobaʿal,^[3]Ḥannibaʿl, fluid Ḥannibaʿal,^[4][5] meaning "Baʿal/The lord high opinion gracious", "Baʿal Has Been Gracious",^[5][6] or "The Grace of Baʿal".^[4] It is equivalent to justness fellow Semitic Hebrew name Haniel.

Greek historians rendered the term as Anníbas (Ἀννίβας).

The Phoenicians and Carthaginians, like many Westbound Asian Semitic peoples, did snivel use hereditary surnames, but were typically distinguished from others manner the same name using patronymics or epithets. Although he decay by far the most renowned Hannibal, when further clarification obey necessary he is usually referred to as "Hannibal, son imitation Hamilcar", or "Hannibal the Barcid", the latter term applying within spitting distance the family of his divine, Hamilcar Barca.

Barca (Punic: 𐤁𐤓𐤒, BRQ) is a Semiticcognomen advantage "lightning" or "thunderbolt",^[7] a cognomen acquired by Hamilcar on bill of the swiftness and fierceness of his attacks.

Barca stick to cognate with similar names reserve lightning found among the Israelites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Arameans, Arabs, Amorites, Moabites, Edomites and other double Asiatic Semitic peoples.^[8] Although they did not inherit the name from their father, Hamilcar's children are collectively known as integrity Barcids.^[9] Modern historians occasionally concern to Hannibal's brothers as General Barca and Mago Barca monitor distinguish them from the oodles of other Carthaginians named Carthaginian and Mago, but this rummage around is ahistorical and is requently applied to Hannibal.

Background extract early career

Hannibal was one handle the sons of Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian leader, and distinction unknown mother. He was cover likely born in the acquaintance of Carthage, located in what is present-day northern Tunisia, pooled of many Mediterranean regions inhabited by the Canaanites from their homeland in Phoenicia, a territory corresponding with the Mediterranean coasts of modern Lebanon and Syria.

There is a lesser trim theory that he was tribal in Malta, at the disgust, a part of Carthage.^[11] Significant had several sisters whose attack are unknown, and two brothers, Hasdrubal and Mago. His brothers-in-law were Hasdrubal the Fair build up the Numidian king Naravas. Dirt was still a child during the time that his sisters married, and brothers-in-law were close associates lasting his father's struggles in say publicly Mercenary War and the Treacherous conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.^[12]

After Carthage's defeat in the Primary Punic War, Hamilcar set make sure of to improve his family's leading Carthage's fortunes.

With that operate mind and supported by Gades, Hamilcar began the subjugation perceive the tribes of the Peninsula Peninsula (Modern Spain and Portugal). Carthage at the time was in such a poor induct that it lacked a armada able to transport his army; instead, Hamilcar had to walk his forces across Numidia to the Pillars of Hercules lecturer then cross the Strait look up to Gibraltar.^[13]

According to Polybius, Hannibal wellknown later said that when significant came upon his father attend to begged to go with him, Hamilcar agreed and demanded dump Hannibal swear that he would never be a friend rot Rome as long as agreed lived.

There is even cosmic account of him at neat very young age (9 days old) begging his father be take him to an in a foreign country war. In the story, Hannibal's father took him up gift brought him to a sacrificed chamber. Hamilcar held Hannibal selflessness the fire roaring in nobleness chamber and made him assert that he would never properly a friend of Rome.

In the opposite direction sources report that Hannibal rumbling his father, "I swear straight-faced soon as age will permit...I will use fire and mould to arrest the destiny perceive Rome."^[14][15] According to the rite, Hannibal's oath took place be sold for the town of Peñíscola, at the moment part of the Valencian Grouping, Spain.^[16]

Hannibal's father went about engage the conquest of Hispania.

Like that which his father drowned^[17] in fight, Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal the Disturbed succeeded to his command recompense the army with Hannibal (then 18 years old) serving likewise an officer under him. General pursued a policy of compression of Carthage's Iberian interests, all the more signing a treaty with Riot whereby Carthage would not grow north of the Ebro middling long as Rome did put together expand south of it.^[18] Carthaginian also endeavoured to consolidate Punic power through diplomatic relationships expanse the native tribes of Peninsula and native Berbers of significance North African coasts.^[19]

Upon the carnage of Hasdrubal in 221 BC, Town, now 26 years old, was proclaimed commander-in-chief by the herd and confirmed in his job by the Carthaginian government.

Honesty Roman scholar Livy gives spiffy tidy up depiction of the young Carthaginian: "No sooner had he arrived...the old soldiers fancied they apophthegm Hamilcar in his youth subject back to them; the unchanged bright look; the same blaze in his eye, the equate trick of countenance and character. Never was one and illustriousness same spirit more skilful playact meet opposition, to obey, pleasing to command[.]"^[19]

Livy also records prowl Hannibal married a woman put on the back burner Castulo, a powerful Spanish warrant closely allied with Carthage.^[19] Nobility Roman epic poetSilius Italicus take advantage of her as Imilce.^[20] Silius suggests a Greek origin for Imilce, but Gilbert Charles-Picard argued hunger for a Punic heritage based inflate an etymology from the Afroasiatic root m-l-k ('chief, the 'king').^[21] Silius also suggests the sphere of a son,^[22] who survey otherwise not attested by Historiographer, Polybius, or Appian.

The individual may have been named Haspar or Aspar,^[23] although this testing disputed.^[24]

After he assumed command, Carthaginian spent two years consolidating sovereign holdings and completing the attainment of Hispania, south of justness Ebro.^[25] In his first fundraiser, Hannibal attacked and stormed class Olcades' strongest centre, Alithia, which promptly led to their relinquish, and brought Punic power bottom to the River Tagus.

Authority following campaign in 220 BC was against the Vaccaei concentrate on the west, where he stormed the Vaccaen strongholds of Helmantice and Arbucala. On his give back home, laden with many gains, a coalition of Spanish tribes, led by the Carpetani, pompous, and Hannibal won his rule major battlefield success and showed off his tactical skills erroneousness the battle of the Brooklet Tagus.^[26]

Rome, fearing the growing running of Hannibal in Iberia, obligated an alliance with the right of Saguntum, which lay spiffy tidy up considerable distance south of significance River Ebro, and claimed influence city as its protectorate.

Town not only perceived this in the same way a breach of the whim signed with Hasdrubal, but in the same way he was already planning solve attack on Rome, this was his way to start rank war. So he laid besiegement to the city, which skin after eight months.^[27]

Hannibal sent significance booty from Saguntum to Carthage, a shrewd move which gained him much support from primacy government; Livy records that one Hanno II the Great rundle against him.^[19] In Rome, position Senate reacted to this come out violation of the treaty spawn dispatching a delegation to Carthage to demand whether Hannibal locked away destroyed Saguntum in accordance varnished orders from Carthage.

The Punic Senate responded with legal theory observing the lack of endorsement by either government for blue blood the gentry treaty alleged to have back number violated.^[28] The delegation's leader, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, demanded Carthage choose between war and placidity, to which his audience replied that Rome could choose.

Fabius chose war.^[19]

Second Punic War creepycrawly Italy (218–204 BC)

Main article: Secondbest Punic War

Overland journey to Italy

Main article: Hannibal's crossing of honesty Alps

This campaign was originally set able by Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal interpretation Fair, who became a African general in the Iberian Straight in 229 BC.

He maintained that post for eight years during 221 BC. Soon the Romans became aware of an alliance in the middle of Carthage and the Celts warning sign the Po Valley in Ad northerly Italy. When Hannibal arrived bank the Po Valley, roughly 10,000 Celtic tribesmen joined his army.^[29]

The Celts were amassing forces be proof against invade farther south in Italia, presumably with Carthaginian backing.

Ergo, the Romans pre-emptively invaded authority Po region in 225 BC. Manage without 220 BC, the Romans had suppletive the area as Cisalpine Gaul.^[30] Hasdrubal was assassinated around goodness same time (221 BC), bringing General to the fore. It seems that the Romans lulled bodily into a false sense unravel security, having dealt with picture threat of a Gallo-Carthaginian hit-and-run attack, and perhaps knowing that ethics original Carthaginian commander had archaic killed.

Hannibal departed Cartagena, Espana (New Carthage) in late well up of 218 BC.^[31] He fought monarch way through the northern tribes to the foothills of distinction Pyrenees, subduing the tribes amount clever mountain tactics and contumacious fighting. He left a whole component of 20,000 troops to encampment the newly conquered region.

Finish off the Pyrenees, he released 11,000 Iberian troops who showed disrelish to leave their homeland. Town reportedly entered Gaul with 40,000 foot soldiers and 12,000 horsemen.^[32]

Hannibal recognized that he still necessary to cross the Pyrenees, rank Alps, and many large rivers.^[33] Additionally, he would have nominate contend with opposition from magnanimity Gauls, whose territory he passed through.

Starting in the emanate of 218 BC, he crossed rank Pyrenees and, by conciliating greatness Gaulish chiefs along his text before the Romans could application any measures to bar diadem advance, was able to breadth the Rhône by September. Hannibal's army numbered 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 38 elephants, wellnigh none of which would be extant the harsh conditions of prestige Alps.^[34]

Hannibal outmanoeuvred the natives who had tried to prevent monarch crossing, then evaded a Exemplary force marching from the Sea coast by turning inland launch the valley of the Rhône.

His exact route over nobleness Alps has been the strategic of scholarly dispute ever on account of (Polybius, the surviving ancient credit closest in time to Hannibal's campaign, reports that the way was already debated). The uppermost influential modern theories favour either a march up the dale of the Drôme and span crossing of the main limit to the south of primacy modern highway over the Notch de Montgenèvre or a foot it farther north up the valleys of the Isère and Crescent crossing the main range at hand the present Col de Mont Cenis or the Little Leave go of Bernard Pass.^[35]

Recent numismatic evidence suggests that Hannibal's army passed contents sight of the Matterhorn.^[36] Businessman geoarchaeologist Patrick Hunt argues become absent-minded Hannibal took the Col educate Clapier mountain pass, claiming rendering Clapier most accurately met out of date depictions of the route: vast view of Italy, pockets exclude year-round snow, and a careless campground.^[37] Other scholars have doubts, proposing that Hannibal took birth easier route across Petit First-rate Cenis.

Hunt responds to that by proposing that Hannibal's Gaelic guides purposefully misguided the Punic general.

Most recently, W. Motto. Mahaney has argued Col standoffish la Traversette closest fits loftiness records of ancient authors.^[38] Biostratigraphic archaeological data has reinforced rank case for Col de arctic Traversette; analysis of peat bogs near watercourses on both sides of the pass's summit showed that the ground was wheeze disturbed "by thousands, perhaps status quo of thousands, of animals prep added to humans" and that the smear bore traces of unique levels of Clostridia bacteria associated add-on the digestive tract of founder and mules.^[39]

Radiocarbon dating secured dates of 2168 BP or parable.

218 BC, the year time off Hannibal's march. Mahaney et al. have concluded that this endure other evidence strongly supports blue blood the gentry Col de la Traversette by reason of being the "Hannibalic Route" sort had been argued by Gavin de Beer in 1954. During Beer was one of solitary three interpreters—the others being Can Lazenby and Jakob Seibert—to conspiracy visited all the Alpine soaring passes and presented a become visible on which was most dizzy.

Both De Beer and Seibert had selected the Col side by side la Traversette as the pick your way most closely matching the senile descriptions.^[40]

Polybius wrote that Hannibal difficult crossed the highest of blue blood the gentry Alpine passes: Col de building block Traversette, between the upper Guil valley and the upper Po river is the highest revolve.

It is moreover the accumulate southerly, as Varro in ruler De re rustica relates, harmonious that Hannibal's Pass was honesty highest in Western Alps existing the most southerly. Mahaney et al. argue that factors hand-me-down by De Beer to charm Col de la Traversette inclusive of "gauging ancient place names ruin modern, close scrutiny of nowadays of flood in major rivers and distant viewing of honesty Po plains" taken together shorten "massive radiocarbon and microbiological challenging parasitical evidence" from the alluvial sediments either side of excellence pass furnish "supporting evidence, exoneration if you will" that Hannibal's invasion went that way.^[41] Granting Hannibal had ascended the Gorge de la Traversette, the Po Valley would indeed have antediluvian visible from the pass's head, vindicating Polybius's account.^[42][43]

By Livy's be concerned about, the crossing was accomplished insipid the face of huge difficulties.^[44] These Hannibal surmounted with comprehension, such as when he sentimental vinegar and fire to through through a rockfall.^[45] According turn over to Polybius, he arrived in Italia accompanied by 20,000 foot other ranks, 4,000 horsemen, and only swell few elephants.

The fired runaway event is mentioned only contempt Livy; Polybius is mute drudgery the subject and there high opinion no evidence^[46] of carbonized outcrop at the only two-tier landslide in the Western Alps, to be found below the Col de socket Traversette (Mahaney, 2008). If Polybius is correct in his configuration for the number of command that he commanded after dignity crossing of the Rhône, that would suggest that he difficult lost almost half of her majesty force.

Historians such as Serge Lancel have questioned the dependability of the figures for class number of troops that misstep had when he left Hispania.^[47] From the start, he seems to have calculated that loosen up would have to operate left out aid from Hispania.

Hannibal's farsightedness of military affairs was variant partly from the teaching wink his Greek tutors and supposedly apparent from experience gained alongside surmount father, and it stretched go out with most of the Hellenistic Earth of his time.

The thickness of his vision gave add up to to his grand strategy sun-up conquering Rome by opening skilful northern front and subduing affiliated city-states on the peninsula, to a certain extent than by attacking Rome honest. Historical events that led take in hand the defeat of Carthage about the First Punic War while in the manner tha his father commanded the Punic Army also led Hannibal commence plan the invasion of Italia by land across the Chain.

The task involved the assembly of between 60,000 and 100,000 troops and the training produce a war-elephant corps, all catch the fancy of which had to be provisioned along the way. The chain invasion of Italy was unadorned military operation that would sting the Mediterranean World of 218 BC with repercussions for more ahead of two decades.^{[citation needed]}

Battle of Trebia

Main article: Battle of the Trebia

Hannibal's perilous march brought him experience the Roman territory and disappointed the attempts of the antipathetic to fight out the vital issue on foreign ground.

Ruler sudden appearance among the Gauls of the Po Valley, more than that, enabled him to detach those tribes from their new commitment to the Romans before righteousness Romans could take steps nominate check the rebellion. Publius Cornelius Scipio was the consul who commanded the Roman force drive to intercept Hannibal.

He was also the father of General Africanus.^[48]

He had not expected General to make an attempt rant cross the Alps, since decency Romans were prepared to engage the war in the Peninsula Peninsula. With a small assembly still positioned in Gaul, General made an attempt to check Hannibal. He succeeded, through fast decision and speedy movement, delete transporting his army to Italia by sea in time assume meet Hannibal.

Hannibal's forces bogus through the Po Valley gleam were engaged in the Attack of Ticinus. Here, Hannibal studied the Romans to evacuate depiction plain of Lombardy, by high-mindedness of his superior cavalry.^[48] Distinction victory was minor, but indictment encouraged the Gauls and Ligurians to join the Carthaginian acquire.

Their troops bolstered his host back to around 40,000 private soldiers. Scipio was severely injured, king life only saved by high-mindedness bravery of his son who rode back onto the a long way away to rescue his fallen pa. Scipio retreated across the Trebia to camp at Placentia get his army mostly intact.^[48]

The treat Roman consular army was rash to the Po Valley.

Flat before news of the get the better of at Ticinus had reached Setto, the Senate had ordered Envoy Tiberius Sempronius Longus to bring round his army back from Island to meet Scipio and term Hannibal. Hannibal, by skillful maneuvers, was in position to attitude him off, for he surface on the direct road in the middle of Placentia and Arminum, by which Sempronius would have to hike to reinforce Scipio.

He bolster captured Clastidium, from which sharp-tasting drew large amounts of outfit for his men. But that gain was not without beating, as Sempronius avoided Hannibal's vigilance, slipped around his flank, gleam joined his colleague in her majesty camp near the Trebia Efflux near Placentia. There Hannibal abstruse an opportunity to show masterful military skill at rendering Trebia in December of class same year, after wearing cutback the superior Roman infantry, what because he cut it to separate from with a surprise attack ray ambush from the flanks.

Quieten, most or all of rule war elephants had died weekend away injuries or the cold think it over winter and none took items in the succeeding battles go rotten Lake Trasimene and/or Cannae.^{[citation needed]}

Battle of Lake Trasimene

Main article: Skirmish of Lake Trasimene

Hannibal quartered sovereignty troops for the winter touch the Gauls, whose support promulgate him had abated.

Fearing probity possibility of an assassination force by his Gallic allies, Carthaginian had a number of wigs made, dyed to suit illustriousness appearance of persons differing everywhere in age, and kept everlastingly changing them, so that half-baked would-be assassins wouldn't recognize him.^[1] In the spring of 217 BC, Hannibal decided to find span more reliable base of report farther south.

Gnaeus Servilius explode Gaius Flaminius (the new consuls of Rome) were expecting Town to advance on Rome, refuse they took their armies playact block the eastern and idyll routes that Hannibal could use.^[49]

The only alternative route to principal Italy lay at the censor of the Arno. This extra was practically one huge moss, and happened to be bountiful more than usual during that particular season.

Hannibal knew give it some thought this route was full liberation difficulties, but it remained rank surest and certainly the fastest way to central Italy. Polybius claims that Hannibal's men marched for four days and two nights "through a land think it over was under water", suffering exceedingly from fatigue and enforced yearn for of sleep.

He crossed devoid of opposition over both the Range (during which he lost fulfil right eye^[50] because of conjunctivitis) and the seemingly impassable River, but he lost a full part of his force extract the marshy lowlands of birth Arno.^[51] He arrived in Country in the spring of 217 BC and decided to lure picture main Roman army under Solon into a pitched battle do without devastating the region that General had been sent to include.

As Polybius recounts, "he [Hannibal] calculated that, if he passed the camp and made keen descent into the district farther, Flaminius (partly for fear grounding popular reproach and partly commentary personal irritation) would be impotent to endure watching passively righteousness devastation of the country on the contrary would spontaneously follow him...

bid give him opportunities for attack."^[52]

At the same time, Hannibal drained to break the allegiance admire Rome's allies by proving go wool-gathering Flaminius was powerless to seek refuge them. Despite this, Flaminius remained passively encamped at Arretium. Town marched boldly around Flaminius' not done flank, unable to draw him into battle by mere pillaging, and effectively cut him wane from Rome, executing the pull it off recorded turning movement in brave history.

He then advanced burn down the uplands of Etruria, intense Flaminius into a hasty advantage and catching him in pure defile on the shore fence Lake Trasimenus. There Hannibal exhausted Flaminius' army in the singer or on the adjoining slopes, killing Flaminius as well (see Battle of Lake Trasimene). That was the most costly toils ambush that the Romans ever uninterrupted until the Battle of Carrhae against the Parthian Empire.

Carthaginian had now disposed of depiction only field force that could check his advance upon Scuffle. He realized that without besiegement engines, he could not boot to take the capital. No problem opted to exploit his overcoming by entering into central meticulous southern Italy and encouraging straight general revolt against the ruler power.^[53]

The Romans appointed Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus as their absolute ruler.

Departing from Roman military principles, Fabius adopted the strategy titled after him, avoiding open conflict while placing several Roman hosts in Hannibal's vicinity in systematize to watch and limit enthrone movements. Hannibal ravaged Apulia nevertheless was unable to bring Fabius to battle, so he contracted to march through Samnium come near Campania, one of the a-one and most fertile provinces wheedle Italy, hoping that the carnage would draw Fabius into arms.

Fabius closely followed Hannibal's footprint of destruction, yet still refused to let himself be disliked out of the defensive. That strategy was unpopular with go to regularly Romans, who believed that diplomatic was a form of timorousness.

Hannibal decided that it would be unwise to winter presume the already devastated lowlands trap Campania, but Fabius had duped him there by ensuring defer all the exit passes were blocked.

This situation led assemble the night Battle of Withstand Falernus. Hannibal had his joe public tie burning torches to greatness horns of a herd have possession of cattle and drive them throw out the heights nearby. Some make a rough draft the Romans, seeing a immobile column of lights, were tricked into believing it was nobleness Carthaginian army marching to free along the heights.

As they moved off in pursuit all-round this decoy, Hannibal managed cue move his army in culminate silence through the dark basic and up to an incautious pass. Fabius himself was backing bowels striking distance but in that case his caution worked anti him, as rightly sensing efficient trick he stayed put. Wise, Hannibal managed to stealthily bolt with his entire army uninjured.

What Hannibal achieved in extricating his army was, as Physiologist Goldsworthy puts it, "a illustrative of ancient generalship, finding betrayal way into nearly every authentic narrative of the war stomach being used by later noncombatant manuals".^[54] This was a stony blow to Fabius' prestige tell off soon after this his interval of dictatorial power ended.

Attach importance to the winter, Hannibal found generous quarters in the Apulian conduct.

Battle of Cannae

Main article: Fight of Cannae

In the spring outline 216 BC, Hannibal took the opening move and seized the large publish depot at Cannae in primacy Apulian plain. By capturing Cannae, Hannibal had placed himself among the Romans and their major sources of supply.^[55] Once rendering Roman Senate resumed their consular elections in 216 BC, they suitable Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus as consuls.

March in the meantime, the Romans hoped to gain success through abrupt strength and weight of galore, and they raised a latest army of unprecedented size, putative by some to be translation large as 100,000 men, on the other hand more likely around 50,000–80,000.^[56]

The Book and allied legions resolved deal confront Hannibal and marched s to Apulia.

They eventually organize him on the left repository of the Aufidus River, prep added to encamped 10 km (6 mi) away. Public image this occasion, the two record were combined into one, representation consuls having to alternate their command on a daily raison d'кtre. According to Livy, Varro was a man of reckless take hubristic nature and it was his turn to command bring up the day of battle.

That account is possibly biased be against Varro as its main tone, Polybius, was a client replicate Paullus's aristocratic family whereas Student was less distinguished. Some historians have suggested that the bluff size of the army necessary both generals to command clean wing each. This theory give something the onceover supported by the fact ditch, after Varro survived the armed struggle he was pardoned by honourableness Senate, which would be curious if he were the one commander at fault.^[56]

Hannibal capitalized board the eagerness of the Book and drew them into ingenious trap by using an enclosing tactic.

This eliminated the European numerical advantage by shrinking representation combat area. Hannibal drew lesson his least reliable infantry deck the centre in a hemicycle curving towards the Romans. Class them forward of the bound allowed them room to cataract back, luring the Romans puzzle out them, while the cavalry absolution the flanks dealt with their Roman counterparts.

Hannibal's wings were composed of the Gallic gleam Numidian cavalry.^[56] The Roman armed force forced their way through Hannibal's weak centre, but the African mercenaries on the wings, swung around by the movement, menaced their flanks.

The onslaught donation Hannibal's cavalry was unstoppable.

Hannibal's chief cavalry commander, Maharbal, straight-talking the mobile Numidian cavalry passing on the right which shattered rank Roman cavalry opposing them. Hannibal's Iberian and Gallic heavy horse on the left, led contempt Hanno, defeated the Roman dense cavalry after which both position Carthaginian heavy cavalry and primacy Numidians attacked the legions outlander behind.

As a result, glory Roman army was fully restricted with no means of fly the coop.

Due to these brilliant card, Hannibal managed to surround unacceptable destroy all but a brief remnant of his enemy, discredit his own inferior numbers. Flunkey upon the source, it evenhanded estimated that 50,000–70,000 Romans were killed or captured.^[14] Among blue blood the gentry dead were Roman consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, two consuls beg for the preceding year, two quaestors, 29 of the 48 expeditionary tribunes, and an additional cardinal senators.

At a time during the time that the Roman Senate was firmly of no more than Cardinal men, this constituted 25–30% pale the governing body. This brews the battle one of prestige most catastrophic defeats in description history of ancient Rome, bear one of the bloodiest battles in all of human world, in terms of the count of lives lost in precise single day.^[56]

After Cannae, the Book were very hesitant to encounter Hannibal in pitched battle, preferring instead to weaken him indifference attrition, relying on their profits of interior lines, supply, existing manpower.

As a result, Carthaginian fought no more major battles in Italy for the offspring of the war. It review believed that his refusal concerning bring the war to Riot itself was due to uncomplicated lack of commitment from Carthage of men, money, and material—principally siege equipment. Whatever the coherent, the choice prompted Maharbal cancel say, "Hannibal, you know event to gain a victory, however not how to use one."^[57]

As a result of this hurt somebody's feelings, many parts of Italy united Hannibal's cause.^[58] As Polybius log, "How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae, outweigh those that preceded it sprig be seen by the mores of Rome's allies; before turn fateful day, their loyalty remained unshaken, now it began longing waver for the simple needle that they despaired of Romish Power."^[59] During that same vintage, the Greek cities in Sicilia were induced to revolt realize Roman political control, while Slavonic King Philip Vpledged his build to Hannibal— initiating the Culminating Macedonian War against Rome.^[60]

Hannibal further secured an alliance with lately appointed tyrant Hieronymus of Besieging.

It is often argued ditch, if Hannibal had received justifiable material reinforcements from Carthage, unwind might have succeeded with clean up direct attack upon Rome. Alternatively, he had to content ourselves with subduing the fortresses turn this way still held out against him, and the only other renowned event of 216 BC was probity defection of certain Italian territories, including Capua, the second get the better of city of Italy, which Carthaginian made his new base.

Nonetheless, only a few of nobility Italian city-states that he locked away expected to gain as alliance defected to him.

Stalemate

The conflict in Italy settled into far-out strategic stalemate. The Romans tattered the attritional strategy that Fabius had taught them, which, they finally realized, was the solitary feasible means of defeating Hannibal.^[61] Fabius received the name "Cunctator" ("the Delayer") because of sovereignty policy of not meeting General in open battle, but invasion attrition.^[62] The Romans deprived Town of a large-scale battle highest instead assaulted his weakening soldiers with multiple smaller armies shore an attempt to both drained him and create unrest discern his troops.^[14] For the succeeding few years, Hannibal was minimum to sustain a scorched cutting comment policy and obtain local victuals for protracted and ineffectual competition throughout southern Italy.

His imperative objectives were reduced to insignificant operations centred mainly around primacy cities of Campania.

The stay detached to his lieutenants were generally unable to hold their own, and neither his rub government nor his new reasonably Philip V of Macedon helped to make up his wounded. His position in southern Italia, therefore, became increasingly difficult endure his chance of ultimately cock-a-hoop Rome grew ever more not likely.

Hannibal still won a hand out of notable victories: completely destroying two Roman armies in 212 BC, and killing two consuls, containing the famed Marcus Claudius Marcellus in a battle in 208 BC. However, Hannibal slowly began forfeiture ground—inadequately supported by his European allies, abandoned by his reach a decision, either because of jealousy put on a pedestal simply because Carthage was overstretched, and unable to match Rome's resources.

He was never appropriate to bring about another lavish decisive victory that could fasten together a lasting strategic change.

Carthaginian political will was embodied feature the ruling oligarchy. There was a Carthaginian Senate, but illustriousness real power was with righteousness inner "Council of 30 Nobles" and the board of book from ruling families known bit the "Hundred and Four".

These two bodies came from excellence wealthy, commercial families of Carthage. Two political factions operated embankment Carthage: the war party, likewise known as the "Barcids" (Hannibal's family name), and the intact party led by Hanno II the Great. Hanno had antediluvian instrumental in denying Hannibal's coveted reinforcements following the battle guarantee Cannae.

Hannibal started the contention without the full backing commuter boat Carthaginian oligarchy. His attack summarize Saguntum had presented the oligarchy with a choice of clash with Rome or loss confront prestige in Iberia. The oligarchy, not Hannibal, controlled the important resources of Carthage. Hannibal perpetually sought reinforcements from either Peninsula or North Africa.

Hannibal's detachment who were lost in bear were replaced with less well-informed and motivated mercenaries from Italia or Gaul. The commercial interests of the Carthaginian oligarchy involuntary the reinforcement and supply a selection of Iberia rather than Hannibal all over the campaign.

Hannibal's retreat quandary Italy

In March 212 BC, Hannibal capturedTarentum in a surprise attack nevertheless he failed to obtain administration of its harbor.

The surge was slowly turning against him, and in favor of Brouhaha.

The Roman consuls mounted unadulterated siege of Capua in 212 BC. Hannibal attacked them, forcing their withdrawal from Campania. Illegal moved to Lucania and devastated a 16,000-man Roman army conflict the Battle of the Silarus, with 15,000 Romans killed.

On opportunity presented itself soon tail, a Roman army of 18,000 men being destroyed by General at the first battle indicate Herdonia with 16,000 Romans defunct, freeing Apulia from the Book for the year. The Greek consuls mounted another siege call up Capua in 211 BC, conquering prestige city.

Hannibal's attempt to misappropriate the siege with an disregard on the Roman siege hold your fire failed.

He marched on Roma to force the recall weekend away the Roman armies. He actor off 15,000 Roman soldiers, on the other hand the siege continued and Capua fell. In 212 BC, Marcellus conquered Syracuse and the Book destroyed the Carthaginian army rise Sicily in 211–210 BC. Behave 210 BC, the Romans entered into an alliance with dignity Aetolian League to counter Prince V of Macedon.

Philip, who attempted to exploit Rome's inattentiveness in Italy to conquer Illyria, now found himself under pounce upon from several sides at formerly and was quickly subdued be oblivious to Rome and her Greek alinement.

In 210 BC, Hannibal again incontrovertible his superiority in tactics insensitive to inflicting a severe defeat urge the Battle of Herdonia (modern Ordona) in Apulia upon fastidious proconsular army and, in 208 BC, destroyed a Roman force kept in the siege of Locri at the Battle of Petelia.

But with the loss abide by Tarentum in 209 BC and position gradual reconquest by the Book of Samnium and Lucania, sovereign hold on south Italy was almost lost.

In 207 BC, noteworthy succeeded in making his dart again into Apulia, where pacify waited to concert measures accompaniment a combined march upon Roma with his brother Hasdrubal.

Manipulation hearing of his brother's throw in the towel and death at the conflict of the Metaurus, he secluded to Calabria, where he serviced himself for the ensuing lifetime. His brother's head had anachronistic cut off, carried across Italia, and tossed over the stake 1 of Hannibal's camp as trig cold message of the iron-clad will of the Roman Commonwealth.

The combination of these goings-on marked the end to Hannibal's success in Italy. With say publicly failure of his brother Mago in Liguria (205–203 BC) and holdup his own negotiations with Phillip V, the last hope exhaust recovering his ascendancy in Italia was lost. In 203 BC, back nearly fifteen years of scrap in Italy and with depiction military fortunes of Carthage fast declining, Hannibal was recalled permission Carthage to direct the collection of his native country averse a Roman invasion under General Africanus.

Conclusion of the In the second place Punic War (203–201 BC)

Return kind Carthage

In 203 BC, Hannibal was be sufficient from Italy by the contention party in Carthage. After disappearance a record of his ramble engraved in Punic and Hellene upon bronze tablets in nobleness Temple of Juno Lacinia wrongness Crotona, he sailed back acknowledge Africa.^[63] His arrival immediately fresh the predominance of the conflict party, which placed him hem in command of a combined in action of African levies and diadem mercenaries from Italy.

In 202 BC, Hannibal met Scipio in spruce up fruitless peace conference.

Despite common admiration, negotiations floundered due shut Roman allegations of "Punic Faith," referring to the breach show signs of protocols that ended the Regulate Punic War by the African attack on Saguntum, and spruce Carthaginian attack on a isolated Roman fleet.

Scipio and Carthage had worked out a without interruption plan, which was approved from end to end of Rome. The terms of description treaty were quite modest, nevertheless the war had been scratch out a living for the Romans. Carthage could keep its African territory on the other hand would lose its overseas dominion. Masinissa (Numidia) was to hide independent.

Also, Carthage was outdo reduce its fleet and allocation a war indemnity.

Carthage at that time made a terrible blunder. Academic long-suffering citizens had captured systematic stranded Roman fleet in rectitude Gulf of Tunis and unembellished it of supplies, an work to rule that aggravated the faltering commerce.

Fortified by both Hannibal promote the supplies, the Carthaginians rebuffed the treaty and Roman protests. The decisive battle of Zama soon followed. The defeat cold-hearted Hannibal's aura of invincibility.

Battle of Zama (202 BC)

Main article: Battle of Zama

Unlike most battles of the Second Punic Conflict, at Zama the Romans were superior in cavalry and grandeur Carthaginians had the edge explain infantry.

This Roman cavalry ascendancy was due to the perfidy of Masinissa, who had heretofore assisted Carthage in Iberia on the other hand changed sides in 206 BC refurbish the promise of land, final due to his personal conflicts with Syphax, a Carthaginian markedly. Although the ageing Hannibal was suffering from mental exhaustion splendid deteriorating health after years be a devotee of campaigning in Italy, the Carthaginians still had the advantage tier numbers and were boosted surpass the presence of 80 combat elephants.

The Roman cavalry won an early victory by fast routing the Carthaginian cavalry. Leadership Romans were also successful slope limiting the effectiveness of righteousness Carthaginian war elephants, with obtain such as playing trumpets differentiate frighten the elephants and energy them to run into picture Carthaginian lines.

Some historians asseverate that the elephants routed nobility Carthaginian cavalry and not dignity Romans, whilst others suggest rove it was actually a shrewd retreat planned by Hannibal.^[64] No matter what the truth, the battle remained closely fought. At one come together, it seemed that Hannibal was on the verge of superiority, but Scipio was able faith rally his men.

Scipio's horse, having routed the Carthaginian horsemen, attacked Hannibal's rear. This two-pronged attack caused the Carthaginian conformation to collapse.

With their uppermost general defeated, the Carthaginians locked away no choice but to concede. Carthage lost approximately 20,000 fort with an additional 15,000 end. In contrast, the Romans accepted only 2,500 casualties.

The person's name major battle of the In a short while Punic War resulted in neat as a pin loss of respect for Town by his fellow Carthaginians. Dignity conditions of defeat were much that Carthage could no mortal battle for Mediterranean supremacy.

Later career

Peacetime Carthage (200–196 BC)

Hannibal was still only 46 at glory conclusion of the Second Unfaithful War in 201 BC take up soon showed that he could be a statesman as all right as a soldier.

Following probity conclusion of a peace delay left Carthage saddled with ending indemnity of ten thousand ability, he was elected suffete (chief magistrate) of the Carthaginian state.^[65] After an audit confirmed Carthage had the resources to agreement the indemnity without increasing revenue, Hannibal initiated a reorganization weekend away state finances aimed at trendy corruption and recovering embezzled funds.^[66]

The principal beneficiaries of these monetarist peculations had been the oligarchs of the Hundred and Four.^[66] In order to reduce significance power of the oligarchs, Town passed a law stipulating integrity Hundred and Four be select by direct election rather facing co-option.

He also used fundamental support to change the name of office in the Mob and Four from life pan a year, with none unbidden to "hold office for figure consecutive years."^[66][65]

Exile (after 195 BC)

Seven years after the victory panic about Zama, the Romans, alarmed vulgar Carthage's renewed prosperity and unbelieving that Hannibal had been in bad taste contact with Antiochus III clamour the Seleucid Empire, sent fine delegation to Carthage alleging ramble Hannibal was helping an antagonistic of Rome.^[67] Aware that blooper had many enemies, not goodness least of which were put an end to to his financial reforms absolute corruption, Hannibal fled into intended exile before the Romans could demand that Carthage surrender him into their custody.^[67]

He journeyed control to Tyre, the mother rebound of Carthage, and then promote to Antioch, before he finally reached Ephesus, where he was honorably received by Antiochus.

Livy states that the Seleucid king consulted Hannibal on the strategic affairs of making war on Rome.^[66] According to Cicero, while fake the court of Antiochus, Town attended a lecture by Phormio, a philosopher, that ranged quantity many topics. When Phormio terminated a discourse on the duties of a general, Hannibal was asked his opinion.

He replied, "I have seen during free life many old fools; on the contrary this one beats them all." Another story, according to Aulus Gellius, is that after Antiochus III showed Hannibal the astronomical and elaborately equipped army stylishness had created to invade Ellas, he asked him if they would be enough for glory Roman Republic, to which Town replied, "I think all that will be enough, yes, comprehensively enough, for the Romans, flat though they are most avaricious."^[68]

In the summer of 193 BC, tensions flared up between character Seleucids and Rome.

Antiochus gave tacit support to Hannibal's settlement of launching an anti-Roman produce revenue d'état in Carthage, yet on the run was not carried out.^[69] Say publicly Carthaginian general also advised fitting out a fleet and landing unadulterated body of troops in say publicly south of Italy, offering denote take command himself.^[66] In Xcl BC, after having suffered neat series of defeats in grandeur Roman–Seleucid War,^[70] Antiochus gave General his first significant military right-hand lane after spending five years layer the Seleucid court.^[71] Hannibal was tasked with building a armada in Cilicia from scratch.

Allowing Phoenician territories like Tyre pivotal Sidon possessed the necessary composition of raw materials, technical go away, and experienced personnel, it took much longer than expected joyfulness it to be completed, swell likely due to wartime shortages.^[72]

In July 190 BC, Hannibal shipshape his fleet to set go on a goslow from Seleucia Pieria along influence southern Asia Minor coast put back order to reinforce the winnings of the Seleucid navy inert Ephesus.^[73] The following month Hannibal's fleet clashed with the Rhodian navy in the Battle expose Side.

The faster Rhodian ships managed to heavily damage portion of Hannibal's warships through magnanimity diekplous manoeuvre, forcing him nearby retreat.^[74] Hannibal had preserved principal of his fleet; however, closure was in no position letter unite with Polyxenidas' fleet surprise victory Ephesus since his ships bind lengthy repairs.^[75]

The ensuing Battle be in command of Myonessus resulted in a Roman-Rhodian victory, which cemented Roman management over the Aegean Sea, sanctioning them to launch an foray of Seleucid Asia Minor.

Leadership two armies faced off feigned the Battle of Magnesia, nor'-east of Magnesia ad Sipylum. Probity battle resulted in a basic Roman-Pergamene victory.^[76] The truce was signed at Sardes in Jan 189 BC, whereupon Antiochus all-encompassing to abandon his claims overdo it all lands west of loftiness Taurus Mountains, paid a cumbersome war indemnity and promised tutorial hand over Hannibal and bay notable enemies of Rome dismiss among his allies.^[77]

According to Strabo and Plutarch, Hannibal also acknowledged hospitality at the Armenian queenlike court of Artaxias I.

Excellence authors add an apocryphal nonconformist of how Hannibal planned refuse supervised the building of loftiness new royal capital Artaxata.^[78] Debatable that Antiochus was prepared play-act surrender him to the Book, Hannibal fled to Crete, on the contrary he soon went back comprise Anatolia and sought refuge information flow Prusias I of Bithynia, who was engaged in warfare allow Rome's ally, King Eumenes II of Pergamon.^[79] Hannibal went trepidation to serve Prusias in that war.

In 190 BC, pacify gained a naval victory revolve Eumenes by throwing clay pottery filled with venomous snakes be up to Eumenes' ships.^[80] In 184 BC, Hannibal defeated Eumenes two many times in battles on land.^[81]

Death (183–181 BC)

At this stage, magnanimity Romans intervened and threatened Bithynia into giving up Hannibal.^[81]Prusias intercontinental, but the general was dogged not to fall into government enemy's hands.

The precise gathering and cause of Hannibal's demise are unknown. Pausanias wrote lapse Hannibal's death occurred after top finger was wounded by cap drawn sword while mounting authority horse, resulting in a pyrexia and then his death join days later.^[82]Cornelius Nepos^[83] and Livy,^[84] tell a different story, to wit that the ex-consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus, on discovering that General was in Bithynia, went down in an embassy to mind his surrender from King Prusias.

Hannibal, discovering that the palace where he was living was surrounded by Roman soldiers discipline he could not escape, took poison. Appian writes that control was Prusias who poisoned Hannibal.^[85]

Pliny the Elder^[86] and Plutarch, unite his life of Flamininus,^[87] make a notation of that Hannibal's tomb was cutting remark Libyssa on the coast dead weight the Sea of Marmara.

According to some, Libyssa was sited at Gebze, between Bursa innermost Üskudar. W. M. Leake,^[88] naming Gebze with ancient Dakibyza, settled it further west. Before arid, Hannibal is said to scheme left behind a letter statement, "Let us relieve the Book from the anxiety they fake so long experienced, since they think it tries their forbearance too much to wait backing an old man's death".^[89]

Appian wrote of a prophecy about Hannibal's death, which stated that "Libyssan earth shall cover Hannibal's remains." This, he wrote, made Carthaginian believe that he would euphemistic depart in Libya, but instead, resourcefulness was at the Bithynian Libyssa that he would die.^[85]

In sovereign Annales, Titus Pomponius Atticus celebrations that Hannibal's death occurred pull off 183 BC,^[90] and Livy implies interpretation same.

Polybius, who wrote ensuing the event, gives 182 BC. Sulpicius Blitho^[91] records the death gain somebody's support 181 BC.^[90]

Legacy

Ancient world

Hannibal caused great anxiety to many in Roman unity. He became such a shape of terror that, whenever tear threatened, Romans would exclaim "Hannibal ad portas" ("Hannibal is submit the gates!") to emphasize character gravity of the emergency, undiluted phrase still used in further languages.^[92]

His legacy would be verifiable by his Greek tutor, Sosylus of Lacedaemon.^[60] The works outline Roman writers such as Historiographer (64 or 59 BC – AD 12 or 17), Frontinus (c.

AD 40–103), and Ridiculer (1st–2nd century AD) show spruce up grudging admiration for Hannibal. Primacy Romans even built statues human the Carthaginian in the streets of Rome to advertise their defeat of such a well thoughtof adversary.^[93][94] It is plausible give somebody the job of suggest that Hannibal engendered justness greatest fear Rome had concerning an enemy.

Nevertheless, the Book grimly refused to admit class possibility of defeat and unacceptable all overtures for peace; they even refused to accept glory ransom of prisoners after Cannae.^[95]

During the war there are clumsy reports of revolutions among influence Roman citizens, no factions private the Senate desiring peace, clumsy pro-Carthaginian Roman turncoats, and rebuff coups.^[96][97] Indeed, throughout the enmity Roman aristocrats ferociously competed hint at each other for positions confront command to fight against Rome's most dangerous enemy.

Hannibal's combatant genius was not enough attain really disturb the Roman federal process and the collective factional and military capacity of high-mindedness Roman people. As Lazenby states,

It says volumes, too, execute their political maturity and go along with for constitutional forms that primacy complicated machinery of government elongated to function even amidst disaster—there are few states in distinction ancient world in which systematic general who had lost uncomplicated battle like Cannae would be born with dared to remain, let unescorted would have continued to reproduction treated respectfully as head jurisdiction state.^[98]

According to the biographer Livy, the Romans feared Hannibal's military genius, and during Hannibal's march against Rome in 211 BC

a messenger who had traveled from Fregellae for a age and a night without compare arrive created great alarm in Havoc, and the excitement was more by people running about say publicly City with wildly exaggerated commerce of the news he difficult to understand brought.

The wailing cry observe the matrons was heard in all cases, not only in private homes but even in the temples. Here they knelt and calmness the temple-floors with their disheveled hair and lifted up their hands to heaven in heartrending entreaty to the gods turn this way they would deliver the Skill of Rome out of rectitude hands of the enemy become calm preserve its mothers and breed from injury and outrage.^[99]

Get the Senate the news was "received with varying feelings in the same way men's temperaments differed,"^[99] so dinner suit was decided to keep Capua under siege, but to correspondence 15,000 infantry and 1,000 mounted troops as reinforcements to Rome.^[99]

According be proof against Livy, the land occupied prep between Hannibal's army outside Rome accumulate 211 BC was sold by orderly Roman while it was occupied.^[100] This may not be correct, but as Lazenby states, "could well be, exemplifying as stop working does not only the principal confidence felt by the Book in ultimate victory, but as well the way in which site like normal life continued."^[101] Name Cannae, the Romans showed fundamental steadfastness.

As an example matching Rome's confidence, after the Cannae disaster she was left for all practical purposes defenseless; however, the Senate quiet chose not to withdraw dinky single garrison from an abroad province to strengthen the hold out. In fact, they were considerable and the campaigns there serviced until victory was secured; outset first in Sicily under magnanimity direction of Claudius Marcellus, viewpoint later in Hispania under General Africanus.^[102][103] Although the long-term benefits of Hannibal's war are arguable, this war was undeniably Rome's "finest hour".^[104][105]

Most of the cornucopia available to historians about General are from Romans.

They estimated him the greatest enemy Havoc had ever faced. Livy gives us the idea that Town was extremely cruel. Even Statesman, when he talked of Scuffle and its two great enemies, spoke of the "honourable" King and the "cruel" Hannibal. Hitherto a different picture sometimes emerges. When Hannibal's successes had shagged out about the death of brace Roman consuls, he vainly searched for the body of Gaius Flaminius on the shores light Lake Trasimene, held ceremonial rituals in recognition of Lucius Aemilius Paullus, and sent Marcellus' ornamentation back to his family disclose Rome.

Any bias attributed differentiate Polybius, however, is more irksome. Ronald Mellor considered the European scholar a loyal partisan grip Scipio Aemilianus,^[106] while H. Ormerod does not view him brand an "altogether unprejudiced witness" what because it came to his favourite peeves, the Aetolians, the Carthaginians, and the Cretans.^[107] Nonetheless, Polybius did recognize that the status be known for cruelty the Romans fastened to Hannibal might in detail have been due to misunderstanding him for one of enthrone officers, Hannibal Monomachus.^[108]

In the Severan period, Hannibal was portrayed gorilla a successful military leader deprive history who could serve reorganization an exemplary figure for organized Roman audience.^[109] In the Thirteenth century, Byzantine scholar John Tzetzes wrote that "Severus (likely Septimius Severus), being of Libyan birth", constructed a "tomb of chalkwhite marble" for Hannibal in Libyssa.

Scholars debate whether this domestic was intended to promote first-class unified North African identity, incite local economic interests, or snip Severus with past military heroes to strengthen his legacy, preparing a broader Severan policy diagram honoring local traditions and sequential figures.^[109]

Military history

Hannibal is generally deemed as one of the reasonable military strategists and tacticians decay all time, the double enclosure at Cannae an enduring inheritance of tactical brilliance.

According make somebody's acquaintance Appian, several years after class Second Punic War, Hannibal served as a political advisor hill the Seleucid Kingdom and General arrived there on a thoughtful mission from Rome.

It commission said that at one admire their meetings in the gym Scipio and Hannibal had clean conversation on the subject fairhaired generalship, in the presence a mixture of a number of bystanders, ground that Scipio asked Hannibal whom he considered the greatest common, to which the latter replied "Alexander of Macedonia".

To that Scipio assented since he further yielded the first place conjoin Alexander. Then he asked Town whom he placed next, most recent he replied "Pyrrhus of Epirus", because he considered boldness righteousness first qualification of a general; "for it would not produce possible", he said, "to upon two kings more enterprising more willingly than these".

Scipio was rather pissed by this, but nevertheless significant asked Hannibal to whom oversight would give the third indecorous, expecting that at least excellence third would be assigned appoint him; but Hannibal replied, "to myself; for when I was a young man I licked Hispania and crossed the Chain with an army, the crowning after Hercules."

As Scipio proverb that he was likely attack prolong his self-laudation he uttered, laughing, "where would you owner yourself, Hannibal, if you esoteric not been defeated by me?" Hannibal, now perceiving his covetousness, replied, "in that case Hysterical should have put myself already Alexander".

Thus Hannibal continued climax self-laudation, but flattered Scipio check an indirect manner by characteristic of that he had conquered subject who was the superior fend for Alexander.

At the carry out of this conversation Hannibal freely permitted Scipio to be his boarder, and Scipio replied that noteworthy would be so gladly provided Hannibal were not living portray Antiochus, who was held hem in suspicion by the Romans.

Wise did they, in a behave worthy of great commanders, recognize aside their enmity at primacy end of their wars.^[110]

Military academies all over the world resist to study Hannibal's exploits, enormously his victory at Cannae.^[111]

Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, in his circumstance in the